Compare And Contrast Two Policy Areas Economics Essay

Compare And Contrast Two Policy Areas Economics Essay There is a debate on what the most appropriate method for a policy formulation, weather the policy cycle model or the Kingdons garbage can model. Different policy areas may be a product of different policy processes. In reality, it can be seen that some policies may take long time to be ready to implement while other issues capture policy makers attention and put in place shortly (Tiernan and Burke 2002, 86). The argument of this paper is that in the implementation of policy-making, while the characteristics of the policy cycle model and the Kingdons garbage-can model may appear together, there may actually be only one model which would manifest itself or dominate to policy making process. The writer will use two different policy areas to demonstrate this argument. This paper will have structures as follows; firstly, it will compare the concepts of policy cycle model and garbage can approach which is preceded by the definition of public policy. Secondly, it will describe the implementation of the policy cycle model on the Indonesian government policy on the elimination of trade tariffs on imported goods from Japan. This regulation is an implementation of the Agreement on Economic Partnership between the Indonesian government and Japan. Thirdly, it will describe the implementation of the garbage can model on the Indonesian government action on emergency response on the Situ Gintung Dam disaster in 2009 in Indonesia. Lastly, it will summarise the main points of the paper and restate the main argument. Several scholars provide different definitions of public policy. However, this paper will use one of them as a starting point in comparing the policy making models in two different policy areas as mentioned above. Public policy is about what government concerns to address public issues and increase public welfare. Colebatch (1998, 2006 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 5) defines public policy as whatever governments choose to do or not to do. This definition deduces several possibilities of what government will do when there is problem in public. Government may solely address the problems; may let other actors to solve the problems with government regulations; may work with other actors to solve the problems; or may do nothing at all. For example, regarding the issue of decreasing on the education quality in secondary school, to address this problem, government may review policy on education system and increase public school quality. Other example to on what government n ot to do is in the case on the privatisation of transport service providers which is projected to increase efficiency and reduce government spending. In comparing two models of policy formulation, the writer identifies several different characteristics of the two models. The first characteristic of policy cycle is the use of rational measurement. Proponents of policy cycle argue that a series of rational stages allows policy cycle works based on embedded rationalism (Bridgman and Davis 2003, p. 98). However, the opponent criticises that a good policy needs more than an effective process good policy entails good content and good content does not necessarily result from an effective process (Everett 2003, p. 67). To respond this criticism, Bridgman and Davis (2003, p. 101) use Driors point of view that alternative solutions are tested against the objectives to gain one rational decision while policy cycle presumes that there is no such outcome. It goes on that the stages in policy cycle are a logical process in terms that each step has a result for the next step, but it does not embody formal rationality (Bridgman and Davis 2003, p . 101). Moreover, Davis et al. (1993, p. 160-1 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, 59) underline rational comprehensive model which follows a logical, ordered sequence and comprehensive because it canvasses, assesses and compares all options. It seems that both sides, the proponents and the opponent, look weather policy cycle rational or not from different perspective which makes them come to different ends. However, in writer perspective they all are right. The stages of policy cycle model can assist policy makers to do their jobs because the stages can be broken down. However, Everett (2003, p. 67) claims that policy cycle cant resolve controversial or contentious issues or replace political contest. To address this doubt Bridgman and Davis (2003, p. 101) argue that most of government activities are routine and only a few which is unusual. In writers concern, although government does routine activity but issues change along the time and the office work history sometimes is not sufficient to portray the issues. Therefore, this model does not much help decision makers. It is claimed that consultation stage in policy cycle model enhances policy formulation for a better implementation. The opponent of this idea, Everett (2003, p. 67) claims that community consultation fails to address issues related to political contest. It goes that community consultation only results little more than a wish list rather than solution. To address this doubt, Bridgman and Davis (2003, p. 101) argue that political interest does not always burden the government routine, however, if so, typical follows the same process to make less contentious issues. In this point, the writer agrees that community consultation is a step forward to open democracy although it cant provide satisfying solution for all. This model will be more appropriate for a routine policy because it takes time following the stages. Turning to the garbage can model, it is believed that this model has different approach with the conventional model of policy making. Kingdons garbage-can model rejects the policy cycle approach by arguing that policy formulation happens within organisation which has characterised by uncertain or different policy interest, unclear internal rules and unstable participation patterns (Cohen et al. 1972, p.1; Howard 1998; Davis et al. 1993, p. 173 cited in Tiernan and Burke 2002, p. 87). Furthermore, Tiernan and Burke (2002, p. 87) explain that the Kingdons garbage-can theory are antithesis of rational decision making approach. This model is appropriate to address issues which need quick response because it does not follow many stages. For example, in combating terror actions, decision makers have to make quick decision and take actions. Sometimes trial and error strategy works in such a chaotic situation. According to Kingdon (cited in Zahariadis 1999, p. 76) decision making works through three streams, namely, problems, politics and policies. Problems may attract policy makers to find solutions or problem leads to solution. For example, the oil spill disaster in the Gulf of Mexico on 20 April 2010. It may capture policy makers attention to formulate a regulation to give huge tax and royalty to oil industries in order to reduce the reliance on oil and shift to alternative fuel (British Petroleum 2010, online) . Political stream involves the contention of pressure group campaign, interest groups, administrative and legislative, judicial, executive. Policy stream revolves around wide range of ideas generated by policy communities, networks and researchers (Zahariadis 1999, pp. 76-77). Issues will capture policy makers attention when they are in the three streams at the same time. Kingdon (1995, p. 165 cited in Zahariadi 1999, p. 77) calls these conditions as policy window. Furthermore, he explains that when policy window opens, which is unpredictably, policy entrepreneurs have opportunity to orchestra to promote their position in the future. In order to compare the two models above, the writer breaks down the first case study into the stages according to the policy cycle model in the Australian government. To start with, Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, pp. 37-40) maintain that the Australian policy cycle comprises of the phases of identifying issues, policy analysis, policy instruments, consultation, coordination, decision, implementation and evaluation. The relationship among those stages will be described together with case study on the policy on elimination of trade tariffs on imported goods from Japan (the Ministry of Finance Regulation number 95/PMK.011/2008). The writer applies the policy cycle model with an assumption that this model is appropriate for developing policy in a normal condition in term of government routine activities. The implementation of policy cycle concepts for developing regulation on trade tariffs. The first stage of policy cycle normally begins with defining problems. This is mentioned by Parsons (1995, p. 81) who argues that stages of policy cycle starts from defining problem and agenda setting, implementation and up to evaluation. The same idea is disclosed by Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p 38) who contend that much policy begins with identifying issues. However, in writer perspective, it may start from other stage when there is no public issue, but government want to change its policy. Furthermore, it is believed that an effective policy requires overhaul because of more information occur during its formulation process (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p 38). These proponents agree that this model allows policy maker to review the previous steps when there is a new finding which may influence the success of policy implementation. Regarding the policy on eliminating trade tariffs barrier between the government of Indonesia and Japan, the idea was emerged by the Indonesian President and Japan Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi during the Asia Pacific Economic Countries (APEC) Summit Meeting in November 2004. The two leaders agreed to tighten the economic relationship between two countries. In writers concern, the meeting between two countries leaders refers to the Kingdons Garbage-can theory, as actors who enforce selected alternative solution (Kingdon 1995, p.116 cited in Tiernan and Burke 2002, p.88). Follow up meeting was held on December 2004 between the Minister of economic, Trade and Industry from the two countries to discuss about a Joint Study Group to explore future possibility to an Economic Partnership between the two countries. Another meeting was conducted between the Indonesian Vice President and Japan Minister of foreign Affair in January 2005 which planned to hold a three round meeting in April 2005. This meeting recommended a negotiation on bilateral economic partnership agreement. A three round meeting was conducted in Bali, Jakarta and Tokyo. The meeting was attended the representative of related departments, agencies, academic and private sectors from two countries. These meetings discussed a wide range issues about the economic relationship particularly on the possibility to increase the benefits from the economic partnership. The last issue is that Japan has been the largest country for goods export destination from Indonesia and vice versa. Other things are that Indonesia is an important energy exporter to Japan, while Japan is the largest provider official development assistance for Indonesia (Join Study Group Report 2005, p. 4). Since the Asian economic crisis 1997, the direct investment from Japan declined although it was noted that Japan was the highest foreign investor in Indonesia with 19.7 % accumulated during 1967 2004 (Join Study Group Report 2005, p. 3). This is also supported by OECDs survey which noted that Japan was the highest investor in Asia from 1982 1997 (Japan Ministry of Finance cited in Thomsen 1999, pp. 12-13). But, these indicators are only a symptomatic of the real issues. As Lindblom (1968, p. 13) indicates that policy makers are not faced with a given problem. Therefore, in writers concern the real problems are that the economic crisis 1997 had weakened Indonesian to buy domestic metal-based products which have imported components (from Japan). The next stage of policy cycle is policy analysis. In this stage, policy analysts work based on the information gathered in relation with the identified issues. According to Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 38) policy analysis refers to the debates of public servants with the related professionals and experts in order to formulate information to decision makers. In relation with the issues of declining Japan investment and enhancing domestic metal-based industries above, the debate was held in the Department of Economic, Trade and Industry, involving the economists and the Indonesian Chamber of Commerce as representative of private sector. During this stage, policy analysts seek appropriate model to increase to make the goods are affordable to public. Economists may employ cost benefit analysis to reduce the goods price in order to support domestic industries. Alternatively, analysts may apply incremental rationality approach to reduce the trade tariffs rate gradually while hopi ng for positive impacts on the public and industries. In writers perspective, policy analysts work under Kingdons Garbage-can approach in selecting formulations of sequential post tariffs which have to be eliminated during the period of 2009 until 2012. The following step of policy cycle is choosing what policy instrument to be used, whether a policy need a new legislation or change programs or adjustment in the operational level. Selecting appropriate policy instruments is essential to a success of public policy because each instrument has its limitation. Drawing from Hoods classifications, the Australian public policy instrument is classified into advocacy, network, money, government action, and law (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 89). Each instrument has different capability to achieve policy goals. Some policies do not need to be in the form of legislation products. For example, to control the use of electricity, government may apply different rate for a certain level of power unit used. Otherwise, government may suggest publics to reduce electricity consumption through a campaign or subsidy. Regarding the information resulted by policy analysts in the Department of Economic, Trade and Industry, the Indonesian government chose law as instrument to implement policy on trade tariffs. According to the Government Decision no 42/2002, all public revenues should be regulated under the Minister of Finance regulation (Government of Indonesia 2002, President Decision no. 42/2002, article 2). Therefore, the policy on eliminating trade tariffs should be under the Minister of Finance decisions. However, the Indonesian government has to issue a decree as a base of ministerial decisions. There are two kinds of consultation, inside and outside organisation. The Minister of Finance conducts inside consultation through open debate and interactive with public in television broadcasting. Participants come from automotive industries owners, economists, and publics. In this session, the Ministry of Finance sough input and support from public regarding the proposal to eliminate trade tariffs gradually. The idea to hold public consultation is supported by Smith (2005, p. 30 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 89) who argues that open forum will enable different groups to express and learn the alternatives and give responses as a process of public deliberation. Another consultation session was conducted in legislation forum. Practically, an issue often captures the attention of legislative members which then call for clarification ministers. It is a formal and scrutiny session because as it is held between parliament members (the Commission IX) and the Ministry of Fi nance as government representative. The perception of legislative member will be considered by the Ministry of Finance to finalise the policy. Alternatively, policy makers can apply e-Consultation to reach a wider public participation. As McNutt (2006 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 117) argues that virtual policy networks will provide collaboration and coordination through online technology. The next stage of policy cycle is conducting coordination throughout the department or agencies. Developing policy needs coordination in order to develop coherence, consistency, and effectiveness when it comes to policy implementation. It is essential to build coordination because departments and agencies have their own functions (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, pp. 124-125). An example for this point is, in Indonesia, the Ministry of Finance holds important role on allocating budget to all departments and agencies. Furthermore, Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 129) explain that coordination starts from agencies submit proposal to government to allow other department provide opinions about the programs against the existing programs administered by other agencies. From this process, central agency may make a review on the proposals. This step applies the concept of Whole of Government approach in terms of synchronizing program of with overall agency activities (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 131). In assessing the proposal, central agency employs routine standards to assess the consistency of programs with other government objectives. In the case of eliminating trade tariffs barrier, Directorate General of International Trade Affair through the Ministry of Economic, Trade and Industry submit the proposal to the Ministry of Finance. The Ministry of Finance asses the proposal in financial perspective the impact from eliminating trade tariffs to public revenue in budget statement. The information about revenue from the tariffs in the previous budget is valuable to predict the loss and to find its replacement. The Minister of Finance projects the implication of the regulation to the other sectors and make coordination with related departments and agencies, such as, employment sectors under the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration; taxation income from the increase of domestic industries in steel-based commodity under with the Ministry of Finance; the increase in fuel consumption as the effect of emerging industrial sector under the Minister of Mines and Energy. Coordination is essential for policy alignment. The argument is that support from interest groups, in this case is importers, company owners and civil servants in customs office, is important to the success of these regulations. When the regulations are implemented there will be many irresponsible actors who take advantage from the weaknesses of the regulation. Indeed, by issuing regulation on elimination trade tariffs on a certain goods, the opportunists will manipulate documents on other goods to get benefits. Decisions are formally made by parliament but sometimes policy only need government regulations. In the policy cycle, decision is an important key for the previous stages. Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 144) suggests that the proposal resulted from all sequential efforts are decided in this stage whether will be considered as a policy or not in the future. Furthermore, in cabinet arena, ministers have opportunity to act collectively to consider policy proposals before they are implemented. In the case of regulation on eliminating trade tariffs above, the Minister of Finance has promulgated the Minister of Finance regulation number 95/PMK.011/ 2008 dated 30 June 2008 (Observation and Research Taxation 2010, online). This regulation in the implementation of the Government of Indonesia Regulation number 36/2008 on legalisation of Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and Japan for an Economic Partnership (IJ-EPA). Policy implementation is the next stage after decision has been made in policy cycle. The outcome of regulation is often far from the expectation. The gap often becomes new issues in the public which often interesting for opposition groups. As noted by Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 159) that the failure of implementation will be use for the opponents and media to show the government weaknesses. Furthermore, they suggest that to avoid the failure, policy proposal should be examine well in every stage of policy cycle before submission to cabinet. The proponents of policy cycle emphasize the scrutiny on every step of policy analysis. Regarding the implementation of regulation on trade tariffs, there are many actors involve as policy guardian. In the bottom level of bureaucracy, customs officers stand in front line to maintain this regulation. As goods are imported through the sea, sea-port customs officers are often as culprits of breaches. However, other actors, such as interest groups (company owners and importers) also play pivotal role. Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 160) argue that the failure in policy implementation is because of government agencies lack of sufficient expertise and resources. The writer agrees with this perspective, however, in Indonesian public administration, it is worsen by unclear borders between public administrators, police department, and army in policy implementation. Indeed, their functions are by far different. That is why public policy often failure in implementation. Evaluation stage is the end and restart of policy cycle (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 179). Furthermore, evaluation provides three purposes; it questions how well a policy meets objectives in its implementation; it examines public servants accountability to their tasks; it suggests critical points to future policy refinement. However, evaluation often faces obstacles. Anderson (2005, p. 271-5 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 189) claim that obstacles may consists of uncertainty over policy goals, difficulty in determining causality, diffuse policy impacts, difficulty in data acquisition, resistance, and a limited time perspective. In Indonesian public administration, the actors of policy evaluation on elimination of trade tariffs are, the Inspectorate General on the Ministry of Finance in collaboration with the Financial Audit Board. Moreover, supervisors in customs offices hold essential roles to the success of this regulation. The Inspectorate General has annual schedule evaluations to make sure all organisation functions are run well. In the writer perception, policy evaluation has to be comprehensive. It does not only evaluate the implementation of a policy, but also concern to wider impacts of a policy. The result of evaluation may be as inputs for other public policy. Indeed, regulation on eliminating trade tariffs has impacts on some aspects, such as, financial aspect, relates to revenue shifting from trade tariffs on imported goods to value added tax of steel industries; economic aspect, relates to economic growth on domestic industries; employment aspect, relates to job opportunity and unemployment ra te reduction; environmental aspect, relates to the increase of fuel consumption on industry and automotive sectors, decreasing air and water quality from emission. However, the Indonesian government often fail to do this. Overall, the stages in policy cycle concern to develop a good policy through a scrutiny process in clear frameworks. It helps policy makers to understand the policy process in different functions. This model is able to break down complex issues into manageable stages. It is a normative suggestion on sequence stages for policy making approach. However, this model takes times and money because of the long process. From the example above, it can be seen that the stage of identifying issue happened in 2004 and 2005 whereas the implementation of the policy started in 2008. Turning to the implementation of the Kingdons Garbage-can model, as mentioned above there are three streams problems, policies, and politics to develop agenda change. Public issues might occur from one of the streams, otherwise coupling three streams. Kingdon (1995, p.88 cited in Tienman and Burke 2002, p. 88; see also Kingdon 1995, p. 165 cited in Zahariadi 1999, p.77) describes policy windows opens when three streams converge to push issues to get solutions. A case study on government action in addressing the disaster of the Situ Gintung Dam in 2009 will demonstrate how the Garbage-can model formulates policy through three streams. The problems stream the burst of Situ Gintung dam greatly captures decision makers attention to push the government to take real actions. Although the disaster had been predicted since 2008, there was lack of government action to prevent it (Indonesias Urban Studies 2009, online). The Situ Gintung dam is located in Cirendeu, Ciputat subdistrict, Tangerang district, Banten Province, Indonesia. After the disaster happened on 27 March 2009, the Indonesian government in collaboration with non-governmental organisations found 99 death bodies and searched thousand people missing (Antara News 2009, online). Regardless the causing factors of the collapse of the dam, the disaster has led decision maker to push government action. Tiernan and Burke (2002, p. 88) argues that problems and issues draw government attention in form of systemic indicators or public attentions. Furthermore, Anderson (1994 cited in Tiernan and Burke (2002, p. 88) claims that the way how to identify problems will determine government response to place in agenda setting. It is evidence that the Situ Gintung disaster resulted public attention and systemic problems. Besides creating human victims, it degrades environment quality and reduces economic and social factors. Such as, the number of houses and areas destroyed by the food from the dam burst (Indonesia Matters 2009, online). This issue enables policy entrepreneurs to open windows of opportunity to create linkage between problems, policies and politics streams. This idea is underlined by Kingdon (1995 cited in Zahariadi 1999, p. 77) who contends that policy windows are opened by inducing problems or by event in political stream. Indeed, the impacts of this disaster attracts policy entrepreneurs to collaborate problems, interest groups, environmentalists, public opinion, executive, legislative members, to define policy solutions. As Kingdon (1995, p. 88 cited in Tiernan and Burke 2002, p. 88) argues that problem is identified, solution is available, and the political climate supports to take action. It is evidence that the disaster happened before the general election 2009, where political actors seek votes from public in several ways in public. In response to the disaster of the Situ Gintung dam, in policy stream, the proposal of emergency response is implemented in trial and error concept. For example, event everything needs to be addressed quickly, government may receive unreliable data of victims about who, what and how, they should be addressed. It will be difficult to provide settlements, foods and other basic needs appropriately. Therefore, decision makers often work according to their own perspectives and assumptions. Kingdon (1995, p. 116 cited in Tiernan and Burke 1999, p.88) explains that policy proposal is floating like the metaphor of the the policy primeval soup. Policy proposal may or may not be directed towards solving substantive problems. In politics stream, policy proposal is revealed by national moods, pressure group campaigns, and administrators (Zahariadi, 1999, p. 77). Administrators accommodate public voice to formulate alternative solutions. For example the impacts from debris floods will increase the vulnerability of the area to many diseases. Therefore, government has to clean up the area by mobilising personnel on the Department of Health and the Department of Public Work. However, the writer believes that the occurrence of environmental, economic and social problems resulted from this disaster, will capture policy makers attention to propose regulation upon these issues. In this point, the concept of policy cycle will appear to finalised policies related to this issue. For example, in addressing social problems on the displaced citizens, policy makers may employ the concept of policy cycle method. Policy makers will start to identify problems, why they have to live close to the river streams; analyse the problems and propose alternative solution; seek policy appropriate instruments which can works; conduct consultation with public and internal government; hold coordination with related agencies, for example the Ministerial of Social affairs and the Ministry of Peoples Welfare; make a decision through legislation or government regulation; implement the decisions and evaluate the implementations. The two case studies above explain that in addressing public issues, policy makers possibly implement the two models of policy formulation although there is only one policy model which is dominate. However, the writer underlines that an issue may lead to another issues which need to be addressed comprehensively. In formulation a public policy, the two models of policy formulation, the policy cycle model and the Kingdons Garbage-can model may be implemented, but only one model will manifested itself. To sum up, there are two models for policy formulation, the policy cycle model and the Kingdons Garbage-can model. Both theories have strength and weaknesses. On one hand, policy cycle is frameworks for policy makers to understand policy formulation as a process rather than just a set of institutions. This model is able to disaggregate phenomena into manageable steps. In every stage, policy makers demonstrate their knowledge to find alternative solution in a logic sequence. Policy cycle serves as guidance for policy makers in formulating policies. This model is a normative suggestion and defending the view that a particular sequence is an appropriate way to approach the policy task. However, this model has weaknesses in term of time completion of a policy cycle. On the other hand, the Kingdons Garbage-can model which is developed from the ideas of Cohen, March and Olsen, provide critiques to the rational decision-making model (Hill 2009, p. 156). There are three streams in the agenda setting and alternative generation, problem stream, policies stream and politics stream. The three streams may result policy independently, otherwise in some critical moment there is multiple-streams. By coupling the three streams the issues will capture more policy makers attention to make a public policy. This model considers that policy organisational is in chaotic, complex and fluid as a result of uncertain and competing policy preference. Therefore, policy-making sometimes is irrational. From the case studies above, although it needs further research, it is argued that in formulation public policy, policy makers may follow the policy cycle method and the Kingdons Garbage-can model, but there is only one model which dominate in the process.

Review of Chinatown

Polanski’s Chinatown is a classic of 1970’s cinema, as it tells a tale of murder, due to greed and the political issue of the drought in California. Jack Nicholson, who superbly plays the character of Jack Gittes, is a detective who investigates matters considering adultery. A woman by the name of Evelyn Mulwray insists that her husband is having an affair, asking for Mr. Gittes to find out the truth, although it is not until later on when the photos of Mr. Gittes and a lady have been released into the media that he realises the lady was an imposter. Evelyn Mulwray who is played by the renowned, Faye Dunaway, plays a character that is mentally unstable, although portrays herself as being strong and powerful. Jack Gittes becomes infatuated with the mystery of the murder and the water project, in which he begins to see holes in the lies being fed to him as he searches for answers. As he and widowed Evelyn grow closer, so does the truth and a resolution. Through this Polanski keeps his viewers on their seats, as they watch this thriller, as they along with Jack Gittes try to piece together the truth. Polanski portrays the aura of the era with sophistication, weaving music and a great choice of settings to give the viewer a feel of the time and culture. The clothing, the cars, the constant habit of smoking gives a picture of Los Angeles, California in the 1940’s and how it has evidently changed to today’s culture and society. Throughout the movie the viewer is able to grasp numerous issues that are still apparent today, particularly corruption and greed and the way in which people’s decisions are influenced by them. The role and status of women is pointed at throughout the film, with Mrs. Evelyn Mulwray acting as a figure of feminism, in freely having affairs and taking the reins when it was required of her. Her turning point in the film shows her strength as a woman, even though being raped by your own father would be mentally disturbing in every nature. In this scene the viewer is represented with the ideas of cunning men in a patriarchal society and how this was abused. Noah Cross: Katherine! I, I'm your grandfather, my dear. I'm your grandfather.

After School Activities and the Effect on Student Academic Performance Essay

Due to an increase in concern surrounding the academic performance of students, a growth in the number of mothers working outside of the home and the risks surrounding children who are unsupervised after school a national concern has been raised as to the after school activities that captivate the students’ attention.   As the result of numerous studies showed the manner in which students spend their time after school is dismissed significantly influenced the students’ behavior a number of after-school programs were created.   In a study performed by the National Center for Education their findings showed the number of schools providing extended programs for elementary and middle school students increased drastically between 1987 and 1999, an increase from 16% to 47%.   [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     As the various research studies conducted focusing on after-school student activities, researchers began to report their findings surrounding the sudden implementation of school affiliated after school programs.   Many reported results that not only showed an increase in academic achievement, they also revealed that as a result the safety of the children improved and an overall reduction in â€Å"negative behaviors such as drug and alcohol use† had occurred.  Ã‚   [1]   One study performed by White, Russell and Birmingham in 2004 reported that one afterschool program increased the overall student attendance and also had a positive impact on the scores students were receiving in mathematics, a subject that has proven to be a struggle to many students.   There were studies; however that reported findings where no change as well as negative change had occurred.   These reports however, were very few.   [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marzano’s study performed in 2003 uncovered 11 factors that afterschool activities influence student behavior, which were then divided into three categories – â€Å"school level practices, teacher-level practices and student-level characteristics.†Ã‚   School level practices involve policies and initiatives within the educational facility; teacher-level practices focus on the activities directly under the teacher’s control; and the student-level characteristics are items that are related to the student’s actual background.   [2]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marzano’s study found that the school and teacher level practices gave the institution and the educator the opportunity to focus on various improvements possible to improve the quality of education provided to the students.   An interesting finding revealed that â€Å"only 20% of the variance in student achievement and that on a student-level characteristics account for an astounding 80%.† [2] As a result, educators came to the realization that in order to increase the level of impact on student achievement, educators must turn their focus on student-level characteristics, which consist of focusing on students’ â€Å"home environment, background knowledge and motivation.†Ã‚   [2] More specific, â€Å"educators can affect three factors of the home environment: parents’ communication with their child about schoolwork, parents’ supervision of their child’s homework, and parents’ communication of their expectations for academic achievement.†Ã‚   [2] Through the act of providing an education for parents and creating a â€Å"home away from home† for students, after school programs can have a positive influence on the overall success of their students in and out of the academic environment.   [2]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marzano suggested that educators should pay careful attention to the knowledge students have already obtained concerning their personal environment, as this has a significant impact on their success in the classroom.   Specifically, â€Å"What students already know about academic content is one of the strongest indicators of how well they will learn new information.†Ã‚   [2] This study concluded that after school programs can stimulate improved academic performance if staff members developed methods â€Å"for enhancing students’ background knowledge include direct academic-oriented experiences; virtual experiences and vocabulary instruction.†Ã‚   [2]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marzano’s study also stressed the benefits of the cultural exposure through fine art and museums as well as the Internet for students.   Data revealed that by simply having access to â€Å"a computer and a high speed Internet connection, students can visit the Egyptian pyramids at Google Earth, investigate the science of skateboarding at the Exploratorium.edu or watch an Elephant Seal in action at NationalGraphic.com†Ã‚   without having to leave the building to gain exposure.   [2] As many studies revealed, low income students stood to benefit from these activities the most, as the opportunity to experience such a wide range of activities was limited.   Many parents who were economically challenged not only lacked the funds to provide certain extras for their children, such as an Internet connection, they lacked the educational background to convey their experiences.   [2]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sandra Hofferth and Zita Jankuniene conducted a study in 2001 that posed specific questions surrounding how students spent their time once school had been dismissed.   The focus was placed on preadolescent students and investigated where students went after school and who they spent time with once they had arrived.   The study revealed that students spend approximately 30% of their time free from obligations and supervision weekly and the activities performed during this time has been shown to have a profound impact on â€Å"their long-term achievement and social adjustment.†Ã‚   [3]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hofferth and Jankuniene identified several factors that they feel should concern educators.   One interesting fact uncovered was the fact that 73% of the children surveyed went directly home once school was dismissed and that the dominant activity these particular students performed was watching television.   Two other common activities were reported from children who returned home after school were playing and reading, the statistics were divided equally between the two. Approximately 15% of the students studied reported participating in afterschool sports activities and 10% revealed that they engaged in â€Å"passive leisure,† which consisted of listening to music or sitting around without activity.   [2] The students reported that they spent their time in an after-school program was revealed to be approximately 8% of the group studied.   These students reported that they spent their time after school participating in sports, art activities, socializing with others and playing.   Only 1% of students participating in after school programs reported that they watched television, as it was not easily accessed in this environment.     [3]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Once data was gathered and organized it revealed that the activities students reported varied, however some findings were consistent.   Every student that took part in the study reported that a large percentage of time was spent at home,.   Because of the extended time spent in their home environment, the majority of time he or she spent studying after school took place in the student’s home.   In modern society this produces various implications, one of which is that both parents are most likely to work outside of the home and as a result the number of children spending their time at home after school is decreasing.   As students’ time at home decreases, so does their time spent reading, which is â€Å"the activity most strongly and consistently associated with student achievement.†Ã‚   [3] Yet another implication identified was the fact that even if the focus on reading and studying took place in the presence of a parent, low income families where parents have less education are less likely to provide accurate attention to the student’s progress.   Children from low income families were also found to be less likely to participate in organized activities, such as sports, that were not affiliated with the school.   These children were found more likely to participate in structured activities if they were presented and organized by the public school system.  Ã‚   [3]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Researchers found that school-based programs provided a safe and supervised environment where students stand to benefit from organized activities that stimulate participation and attention to academic activities.   One significant factor that educators face is the fact that as students grow older and mature they prefer the unsupervised environment as they are able to freely â€Å"relax, read and watch television.†Ã‚   [3] For educators to attract the attention of these students, after school programs need to take into account â€Å"the need for independence and self-determination as well as the need for supervision and help with homework.†Ã‚   [3] Preadolescents are a particular challenge to educators; however the statistics showed that the time spent after school is imperative to a student’s performance.   [3]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Not all studies have reported results that are overwhelmingly positive, as a national evaluation of 21st Century Community Learning Center after school programs revealed that â€Å"programs affected the type of care and supervision students received after school† but their â€Å"academic outcomes were not affected and they had more incidents of negative behavior.†Ã‚   [3] This particular study analyzed the behavior of 2,308 elementary students that showed an interest in attending a center and to accurately obtain data for this particular study these students were assigned randomly to a treatment or control group.   The findings that feelings of safety significantly increased did not have a clear basis on which researchers could identify, as the programs shifted students from parental care to unfamiliar adults.   Some speculation was placed on the fact that these programs decreased the amount of time students spent caring for themselves, however this particular study did not address this issue.   [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The study identified a number of key factors that might offer an explanation to the lack of improvement in academic outcomes.  Ã‚  Ã‚   One key factor being the fact that there was no coordination between the regular school day curriculum and the afterschool programming, which staff concluded that they came to understand this as a necessity during the study.  Ã‚   Researchers reported that â€Å"coordination was weak or nonexistent† when outside staff made an attempt to coordinate with teachers, â€Å"using burdensome processes such as having teachers send homework assignments to programs or share lesson plans with them.†Ã‚   [1] The coordination of curriculums was far more successful and consistent if both the school educator and staff responsible for after school activities took place in the same location.   [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Yet another aspect uncovered imperative to the after-school program’s success was attendance.   Researchers revealed that a student’s attendance â€Å"may need to pass some minimum threshold before gains are realized.†Ã‚   [1] Students who attended the program regularly and more consistent than others showed positive outcomes, however the study reported â€Å"we cannot draw causal inference from that analysis.†Ã‚   [1] Also shown to have an effect on students’ focus was the amount of time spent focusing on academic activities, as the program’s structure was far more fragmented into various activities such as â€Å"snacks, cultural enrichment, recreation, arts and music.†Ã‚     Ã‚  [1] Researchers admitted the fact that it is quite possible that if the amount of time focusing on academics was increased it is quite possible these findings would have revealed different results.   [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The results of this particular study, unlike studies completed by other researchers, were inconsistent and did show that some students benefitted from the structured afterschool environment.   They reported that â€Å"By design, the centers included in the study were those that could support random assignment, and those estimates from the study do not represent average impacts of all 21st Century centers serving elementary students.†Ã‚   [1] In order for solid and consistent findings to be revealed, another study would have to take place.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 2001 Cosden, Morrison, Albanese and Macias provided a summary of the outcome of a number of studies that had been conducted on the level of influence students receive from their after school activities.   Their summary began by focusing on the fact that when unsupervised, some students have a tendency to act in a negative fashion by committing various crimes.   They revealed that the US Department of Justice reported that the peak time for juvenile crime takes place between the hours of 3pm and 7pm on school days, â€Å"the period after school until parents typically return from work.†Ã‚   [4] The Juvenile Offenders and Victims:   1999 National Report also suggested that this study found that â€Å"after-school programs have greater potential for reducing juvenile crime than imposition of a juvenile curfew.†Ã‚   [4] The students most likely to commit these acts were those students that have been identified as at-risk students, many from families that have limited incomes.   [4]   The government stressed the importance of creating a structured environment for students after school has dismissed offers them the opportunity to focus their mind on positive activities, which will ultimately lessen the number of juvenile crimes committed.   [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Out of the various studies summarized by Cosden, Morrison, Albanese and Macias each study focused on â€Å"structured after-school programs that offered students assistance with homework and other academic needs.†Ã‚   [4] In addition most of the studies â€Å"focused on children considered at risk for school failure as a result of low income, limited familial resources, and/or poor grades.†Ã‚   [4] Though each program had variances as to the actual curriculum each study provided the students with a structured environment where the students experienced contact with an adult.   The impact of the student’s academic performance appeared to be â€Å"mediated by other child and teacher factors, such as increases in the child’s self-esteem and school bonding and changes in teacher perceptions regarding the effort and capabilities of the student.†Ã‚   [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In a 1992 study conducted by Halpern and then a similar study in 1999 by Beck, research was gathered pertaining to programs where students were provided a structured location and time where they could receive â€Å"homework and instructional support.†Ã‚   [4]     Beck’s research focused on student ranging from Kindergarten to 12th grade and suggested that this program was integral in shaping the students’ level of confidence as well as the teacher’s perception of their level of effort. Similar data was reported by Halpern in his study of children between five and twelve years old, in that he felt the â€Å"participation gave students greater confidence in their abilities and provided an opportunity to develop positive, school-related, adult attachments.†Ã‚   [4] Though neither study revealed that these structured after-school programs offered a positive impact in the amount of homework completed by students, it suggested that the structured environment provided an opportunity to increase the level of self-confidence in each student that participated as well as improve the teacher’s perception of the student’s overall effort.   [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1992, Ross, Saavedra, Shur, Winters and Felner conducted a study of 400 school aged children that took part in a variety of after-school programs, each offering a structured environment but possessing various cirriculum.   The researchers delivered results that showed each of these programs as integral in building self-esteem in those who took part in the structured activities at the end of the school day.   The group also found that self-esteem was a major factor in determining academic performance in students, as it had â€Å"positive effects on standardized test scores in math and reading.†Ã‚   [4]   This research did, however, report that there were some concerns surrounding after school activities that placed focus specifically on academics.   [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is a concern if activities after school specifically focus on academic activities and homework assistance this might promote a negative environment for students, as these programs â€Å"do not replace other non-academic extracurricular activities.†Ã‚   [4] The concern surrounding this topic is that many after-school activities provided through the school system do not provide students opportunities that take focus away from the regular school day curriculum. Researchers suggest that many students require some type of incentive to build their self-esteem and if this isn’t provided it may â€Å"increase the student’s risk for school failure.†Ã‚   [4]   Cosden, Morrison, Gutierrez, and Brown suggest that programs should offer activities that â€Å"enhance student engagement to the school while allowing time for homework to occur.†Ã‚   [4]   Students must be given the opportunity to disengage their minds from the regular school day and place a focus on an alternate structured activity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All studies revealed the importance of parental involvement, as the time spent in the care of others is less time spent in the care of the parents.   Parental involvement is important because not only does it provide students with immediate assistance, but it â€Å"models positive attitudes and study skills needed to succeed in school.†Ã‚   [4] Parents who stress the importance of learning have a large impact on their children, as they see their parents as â€Å"both competent and similar to them.†Ã‚   [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though not all research studies conducted have shown conclusive results that prove the overall effectiveness of afterschool programs, each concluded the level of influence students receive from their after school activities.   The majority of these studies have revealed that the various structured programs available to students provide youth with an opportunity to have afterschool supervision in a structured environment that promotes positive behavior.   For the most part it is agreed that â€Å"involvement in extracurricular activities is associated with school engagement and achievement† and that the fact these students become engaged in a school affiliated program means that students are less likely to commit juvenile crimes, â€Å"are less likely to drop out and more likely to have higher academic achievement.†Ã‚   [4] References [1] James, S., Dynarski, M. & Deke, J. (2007). When Elementary Schools Stay Open Late: Results From the National Evaluation of the 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program. . [2] Parsley, D. & LaBounty, S. (2007). Joining Forces. Principal Leadership, 8 (4), 28-31. [3] Hofferth, S. L. & Jankuniene, Z. (2001). Life After School. Educational Leadership, 58 (7), 19, 5p, 3c. [4] Cosden, M., Morrison, G., Gutierrez, L. & Brown, M. (2004). The Effects of Homework Programs and After-School Activities on School Success. Theory Into Practice, 43 (3), 220-228.

Report About Our Engagement Of Manus Regional Processing...

Report about our engagement in Manus Regional Processing Center Object/Purpose of the visit: The purpose of our visit to Manus RPC is to assist the Status Resolution Officers in engaging individuals with similar cultural backgrounds to gain insight into their perception and objectives, to balance existing perceptions and interpretations. Timing: Three working weeks. Introduction: We engaged in several Status Resolution Interviews and many informal discussions with the residents. In addition, we engaged with the residents in their camps during the shop front weekly visits to assist the SROs to send the following primary messages: a) Manus Regional Processing Centre will close and accordingly the residents need to start thinking about their future outside MPRC. b) They are near the end of the Resolution Status Determination process and must now accept that they will likely be returning home in the near future (either voluntarily or involuntarily). c) They need to thoroughly pursue any third country options as the alternative will be returning to their home countries. d) Currently have the option of Assisted Voluntary Return, however, failure to engage will result likely in involuntary removal which will mean no support or financial assistance. e) Finally, this might be last chance to have some kind of control over their circumstances. As a result, we reached the below: Findings: 1. The SROs are handling the Status Resolution Interviews in a professional and friendlyShow MoreRelatedReport About Manus Regional Processing Center Essay1017 Words   |  5 Pages Report about Manus Regional Processing Center Object/Purpose of the visit: The purpose of our visit is to assist the Status Resolution Officers in engaging individuals with similar linguistics and cultural backgrounds to gain insight into their perception and objectives, to balance existing perceptions and interpretations. Timing: Three working weeks. Introduction: We engaged in a number xx xx of Status Resolution Interviews. Additionally, we visited the residents in their camps during the shopfront